Secondary Data Analysis
This project examines whether adverse child experiences, positive child experiences, and the levels of violent crime in the areas children grow up in, are associated with their later involvement in violence.
Previous research has shown that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) – such as experiencing child abuse, domestic violence, and parental substance misuse – are associated with later involvement in violence. However, positive life experiences (PCEs) – such as connectedness to family, peers, school, and community – are associated with decreased risk. There is also evidence that the relationship between ACEs, PCEs and involvement in violence is affected by the amount of crime in the local area. Despite this, there is limited existing research in the UK that has examined the role that ACEs and PCEs play, and how they interact, to affect children and young peoples involved in violence.
This project examines whether adverse child experiences, positive child experiences, and the levels of violent crime in the areas children grow up in, are associated with their later involvement in violence.
The main questions this project sets out to answer, are:
This study draws primarily on data from the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS), a study tracking a cohort of children born around the year 2000 in England and Wales. It also uses police-recorded crime data to understand the amount of violent crime in the local area. The study looks at the associations between ACEs, PCEs and neighbourhood violence on three self-reported violence outcomes measured at ages 14 and 17: assault perpetration; carrying or using a weapon; and, gang involvement.
The ACEs examined by this study include: having a single parent; parental breakup; domestic violence; verbal abuse; physical abuse; parental alcohol abuse; parental drug use; parental mental health; poor parental relationship; poor parent-child relationship; and, parental long-term disability/illness. The PCEs examined include: having low-risk peers; positive peer experiences; good school connectedness; positive teacher-child relationships; activities and hobbies; living in a safe neighbourhood; and, feeling safe in the playground.
Please refer to the analytical protocol for more details.
| A higher number of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) is associated with an increased risk of children engaging in violence. | Having two or more ACEs compared to none increased the risk of assault perpetration by 19%, weapon involvement by 57% and gang involvement by 61%. Having six or more ACEs increased the risk of assault perpetration by 45%, weapon involvement by 150% and gang involvement by 154%. The combination of ACEs associated with the highest risk included parental drug use, single parenthood, domestic violence, physical abuse and long-term parental disability or illness. |
| A higher number of positive childhood experiences (PCEs) is associated with a decreased risk of children engaging in violence. | Having three to four PCEs compared to zero to two PCEs reduced the risk of assault perpetration by 12%, weapon involvement by 33% and gang involvement by 28%. Having six to seven PCEs reduced the risk of assault perpetration by 35%, weapon involvement by 66% and gang involvement by 59%. The combination of PCEs associated with the lowest risk included low-risk peers, good school connectedness, positive teacher-child relationship and positive peer experiences. |
| The link between ACEs and violence was reduced when children also had a high number of PCEs. | Having high numbers of PCEs partially offset the risks associated with ACEs. Children who had both a high number of ACEs and PCEs, compared to those with a high number of ACEs and low PCEs, had a lower risk of involvement in violence. For example, among children with three or more ACEs, the risk of assault perpetration fell by 22%, weapons involvement by 49% and gang involvement by 39% for those who also had five or more PCEs. |
| ACEs and PCEs better explain violence involvement than neighbourhood crime rates. | Children growing up in high-violence neighbourhoods were more vulnerable to involvement in violence. For example, the likelihood of weapons involvement was 62% higher for children growing up in the 20% most violent areas. However, neighbourhood crime levels were no longer associated with violence perpetration once characteristics, including ACEs and PCEs, were taken into account. |
| There is some evidence that differences in experiences of violence by ethnicity can be explained by family socioeconomic characteristics and exposure to ACEs and PCEs. | Black children had higher rates of assault perpetration (53.3% and 47.6%, respectively) than White children (41.7%). This difference in assault rates disappeared after controlling for socioeconomic family characteristics and ACEs and PCEs, suggesting much of the difference can be explained by differences in exposure to these family factors. However, this analysis was limited by a small sample size of children from individual ethnic minority groups and is, therefore, not as secure as some of the other findings. |
This study provides valuable information about the relationship between ACEs, PCEs, neighbourhood safety and children’s involvement in violence. It is one of only a few studies to present evidence from an English or Welsh context. Insights from this study should be combined with findings from other research to identify and support the children who are most vulnerable to involvement in violence.
Please refer to the final report for more detail on these findings, how to interpret them, and their implications.