Stop and search
Police powers to stop and search a person for carrying an unlawful item.
Estimated impact on violent crime:
MODERATE
Evidence quality:
1
2
3
4
5
Cost:
1
2
3
Other Outcomes
UK studies suggest stop and search has a low impact on crime.
What is it?
Stop and search powers allow the police to search people who they suspect to be in possession of unlawful items, such as illegal drugs, weapons, or stolen property. There are several types of stop and search powers but the two below are most relevant to children and young people, and to violence prevention:
- Powers that require officers to have ‘reasonable grounds’ to conduct the search (under Section 1 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, commonly referred to as PACE). Reasonable grounds means that:
- the officer must genuinely suspect that they will find the item searched for. The suspicion should relate to the likelihood of the person being in possession of the item, not the likelihood that they are committing an offence.
- it must be objectively reasonable for them to suspect this, given the information available to them. This is an objective test; it expects that a reasonable person given the same information would also suspect that the individual is carrying the item.
- Powers that allow officers to search for dangerous instruments or offensive weapons without reasonable grounds, for a limited time, within a specified area (under Section 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act, 1994). For example, a Section 60 order might be placed on a specific high street or park for a period of 24 or 48 hours, due to anticipation of higher levels of violence. This is informally described as ‘suspicionless’ stop and search.
Stop and searches can be initiated in three ways:
- Self-generated: when an officer decides to stop someone based on what they see or hear. Around half of stop searches are self-generated.
- Third-party: when an officer stops someone based on information from, for example, a member of the public or CCTV. Around one-third of stop searches are informed by a third-party.
- Intelligence-led: when an officer stops someone because intelligence suggests they possess an unlawful item at that time. Around one in 10 stop searches are intelligence-led.
Stop and search is a tertiary prevention approach that seeks to prevent further offending by removing illegal drugs or weapons from people, or finding evidence of a crime they have previously committed. Following a stop and search, police officers may detain people that have committed offences, and this could prevent further offending during the time that they are in custody. Observing or hearing about the use of stop and search in specific locations or at certain times may act as a deterrent and prevent people from offending. During a stop and search encounter, the officer must explain the reason for the search. When stop and search is experienced as unfair, which might be caused by the way it is conducted or how many times it has been experienced, this can weaken trust in the police and the criminal justice system. This may increase offending amongst those subjected to stop and search.
Prevalence of the use of stop and search in England and Wales
Last year 547,002 stop and searches were conducted by the police in England and Wales, of which 542,722 were section 1 PACE searches.
The majority of PACE stop and searches are for drugs rather than weapons: around 15% are under suspicion of weapons carrying, while around 60% are under suspicion of carrying drugs.
Relatively few searches find weapons, only 3% of all searches. This rises to 11% of stop and searches where officers have information or intelligence that a person might be carrying a weapon.
Most searches do not lead to an arrest or caution. 14% result in an arrest, and 8% result in a community resolution. Arrests fall to 10% for children.
1 in 5 (21%) of stop and searches are conducted on children aged 10 to 17. Around one-third of these are for weapons.
Most children who are stopped and searched are boys (90%). Searches of under 10s are very rare, only 64 were undertaken last year.
When searches take place under a Section 60, arrests are less common. 5% of stop and search under Section 60 led to an arrest, compared to 14% under PACE. Last year, 4,280 stop and searches were carried out under Section 60.
Is it effective?
On average, based on international research, stop and search is likely to have a moderate impact on violent crime. Research undertaken in the UK suggests that stop and search is likely to have a low impact on violent crime.
A review of international studies estimates that, on average, stop and search has reduced crime by 13%. Seven of the nine studies that informed this estimate were undertaken in the US. Two studies were undertaken in the UK, and they estimate that stop and search reduced crime by 5%.
The review also found that, on average, the use of stop and search reduced crime in neighbouring areas by 7%. However, it is important to note potential harms associated with stop and search. People that have experienced stop and search are more likely to hold negative attitudes towards the police, and to have poorer mental and physical health. The research shows higher rates of depression, anxiety, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), suicidal thoughts and sleep problems amongst people that have been stopped and searched, compared to those that have not. The research is not robust enough to confirm whether these negative attitudes, mental or physical health conditions were caused or exacerbated by the stop and search experience, or by other life events and experiences.
One study undertaken in the US, involving 9-15 year olds, collected data over a four-year period and found that being stopped and searched led to an increase in involvement in antisocial behaviour and offending.
Two studies were undertaken in the UK, and they estimate that stop and search reduced crime by 5%.
Racial disproportionality in the use of stop and search
In England and Wales, Black and minority ethnic residents are significantly more likely to be stopped and searched.
In the year 2022/23, Black people were four times more likely to be stopped and searched than white people. Asian people were 1.4 times as likely and mixed ethnicity people were 1.7 times as likely to be stopped and searched compared to white people. Under Section 60, the use of suspicionless stop and search, Black people were seven times more likely to be stopped and searched than white people. A recent report from the Children’s Commissioner (2024) found that Black children in England and Wales were over four times as likely to be strip searched when compared to national population figures, while white children were around half as likely to be strip searched.
Black and minority ethnic residents in England and Wales are also disproportionately more likely to be victims of crime, as well as being arrested, charged, and prosecuted for crime.
The Mayor’s Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC) surveyed 11,874 young Londoners between the ages of 11 and 16 and found that when controlling for exposure to gang and weapon-related violence, and for being a victim of crime (which made young people more likely to be stopped and searched) there were still increased odds of young Black Londoners being searched than white Londoners.
14% of stop and search conducted on Black or minority ethnic children aged 10 to 17 resulted in arrest, compared to 8% of white children.
Some studies highlight ‘adultification’ as a cause of disproportionately high stop and searches on Black boys under the age of 17. Adultification takes place when adults, or people in positions of power, treat children as less innocent, less vulnerable, and more emotionally resilient than they are. Adultification is driven by discrimination and bias about a child’s personal characteristics or lived experiences. It is likely that Black children are more often subject to adultification and assumed to be engaging in criminal or antisocial behaviour.
How secure is the evidence?
We have moderate confidence in our estimate of the average impact of stop and search on violent crime.
We dropped our confidence in this estimate from high to moderate because it is based on nine studies, and they combine the impacts on children and young people with adults.
We have very low confidence in our estimate of the impact in the UK because this is based on only two studies.
What do children and young people think about the use of stop and search?
Most children and young people are generally supportive of the use of stop and search. In the MOPAC survey of 11,874 children and young people in London, 53% believe that stop and search will help to prevent people from carrying knives; 14% disagreed; and 34% were neutral or didn’t know. Black and mixed ethnicity children are less likely to think the police should use stop and search, and less likely to think that stop and search is delivered fairly. Though across all ethnicities in London more children are in favour of there being some stop and search rather than none. Children who have experienced stop and search raise concerns about how it is done. A national survey found that out of 101 children that had experienced stop and search, half said that as a result of this experience, they trusted the police less, had felt humiliated and embarrassed, and found the experience traumatic.
How can you implement it well?
Targeted and intelligence-led
The review found that stop and search that is targeted in smaller locations, such as specific streets or a park, is likely to be more effective at reducing crime than stop and search tactics applied at neighbourhood, district or town level.
Stop and search is also more effective at finding unlawful items when it is based on stronger grounds for the stop, compared to weak or unreasonable grounds. A review in 2021 found that 63% of stop and searches were conducted with strong or moderate grounds, and 31% of those searches found an unlawful item. In comparison, 36% of stop and searches were conducted with weak or unreasonable grounds, and 16% found an unlawful item.
Use of hot spots policing and problem-solving approaches
Hot spots policing identifies locations where crime is most concentrated and focuses policing resources and activities on them. The research suggests that, on average, hot spots policing has reduced violence by 14% and reduced drug offences by 30%. This may simply involve increased police presence or may include problem-oriented policing (POP), which may reduce crime further. It aims to understand the root causes of crime in hot spot locations and involves designing and implementing tailored interventions to reduce crime. These approaches are likely to achieve greater impacts on violence and may improve relationships with community members.
Provide regular training and monitoring of stop and search practice
Many officers only receive training in conducting stop and search during their initial police training. This means that the development of stop and search practice is based primarily on watching and listening to the conduct of other officers. Police forces should provide a structured programme that ensures officers receive refresher training, that includes guidance about fair decision making, professional interactions and clear communication, and accurate recording of individual encounters.
Police forces should have a community scrutiny panel, or monitoring group, in place to review the use of stop and search. These groups bring together members of the public and are typically chaired by an independent person. They review randomly selected stop and search encounters, reflect on whether officers have acted appropriately, and provide feedback to the police force.
Safeguarding
In conducting a stop and search, police must adhere to strict safeguards that protect the dignity and welfare of the individual they are stopping and searching. These safeguards include codes of practice and the use of Body Worn Video to prevent unlawful discrimination, harassment, and victimisation.
How much does it cost?
On average, the cost of stop and search is likely to be low.
Two studies suggest that, on average, it takes about 15 minutes to conduct a stop and search. A stop and search may be undertaken by a single officer or by two officers. The average cost across the two studies is £20 – £30 per stop and search encounter that involves two officers. We estimate that around £10 – 16 million was spent on stop and search in England and Wales last year.
Topic summary
- The evidence provides a mixed picture about the impacts of stop and search. On average, the global evidence shows a moderate impact on crime. However, studies in the UK show a low impact on crime. In addition, the research shows an association between people that are stopped and searched, and poorer mental and physical health, and more negative attitudes towards the police.
- There are some situations where stop and search are critical powers for the police to detect crime. When stop and search practice is intelligence-led, rather than being led by officer perceptions alone, it is more likely to lead to detection of crime.
- Stop and search is disproportionately used on Black people, in particular Black boys. This has a damaging impact on trust in the police to treat people fairly.
- Regular refresher training and community scrutiny panels may improve stop and search practice.
- It is estimated that around £10 – £16 million was spent on stop and search in 2022.
Take away messages
- Don’t instinctively ramp up stop and searches: don’t assume that increases in stop and searches will deliver significant reductions in violence levels.
- Prioritise hot spots policing and problem-oriented policing approaches in areas with high concentrations of crime.
- When using stop and search:
- Prioritise the use of targeted and intelligence-led stop and search.
- Follow the College of Policing Authorised Professional Practice guidance on stop and search.
- Run community scrutiny panels or police encounter panels that enable members of local communities to scrutinise randomly selected cases of stop and search. Put in place an accountability process to ensure that the feedback is addressed.
- Ensure staff are well-trained: put a top-up training plan in place to ensure that officers receive refresher training on the use of stop and search at regular intervals throughout their career.
External links
The Police Foundation Report: How Stop and Search is used
This paper examines the available data about the use of stop and search in England and Wales up to March 2023.
College of Policing Authorised Professional Practice (APP) on Stop and Search
This page is from APP, the official source of professional practice for policing. It provides a definition of a fair and effective stop and search encounter, how and why stop and search encounters should be fair, legal, professional and transparent.
Home Office Police powers and procedures: Stop and search and arrests, England and Wales
Stop and search statistics containing information from the 43 territorial police forces in England and Wales, and the British Transport Police (BTP).
HMICFRS Report on the disproportionate use of police powers
This report examines published national and force-level data on stop and search and on the use of force from 2019/20; the findings of HMICFRS’s 2018/19 Integrated PEEL Assessments covering police effectiveness, efficiency and legitimacy; and the results of a review of recorded grounds stop and search.
Independent Office for Police Conduct review of stop and search (2022)
This learning report brings together evidence from a review of 37 independent IOPC investigations, appeals and reviews between 2018 and 2021, alongside community and stakeholder views, and national data.
Crest Advisory: Crime, policing and stop and search: Black perspectives in context (2022)
Crest Advisory have produced two research papers examining perspectives and experiences of stop and search in England and Wales, and recommendations for change.
HMIC Report on the Best Use of Stop and Search Scheme (BUSS) (2016).
A HMIC inspection report on the implementation of the BUSS scheme across police forces in England and Wales.
National Guidance for Community Scrutiny Panels
The Home Office ran a consultation (August 2023 – October 2023) on a draft community scrutiny framework and how local scrutiny processes can be improved to help police serve communities more effectively.
College of Policing Knife-crime: A problem-solving guide
Pages 57-60 of this paper explore the use of stop search for preventing knife crime and provide a one-page theory of change.